Business Communication, Australia and New Zealand

Chapter 1

Communication today 1

One communication, two communications 2

Priestley’s paradox 4

Communication: models for understanding 5

Models 1 and 2: Lasswell, and Shannon and Weaver 5

Models 3, 4 and 5: Berlo, Lievrouw/Finn and Foulger 6

Model 6: an expanded model of communication 8

Context 17

Message termination and failure 17

Time and simultaneity 17

Communication: always a good thing? 17

Communication and ethics 18

Ethics and rationalisation 18

Summary 21

Key terms 21

Review questions 21

Applied activities 22

References 22

Acknowledgements 25

Chapter 2

Document design and graphic communication 27

Document and information design: an introduction 28

Some definitions 28

Information design and readability 28

Designing information: how do you do it? 29

Structure and analysis 31

Layout: how does it look? 33

Types and fonts 34

White space 36

The shape of the page 36

Paragraphs, lists, columns 37

Colour 37

Document design and structure 37

Layout/document design: from before to after 39

Every picture tells a story: graphic communication 42

Visuals: what they are and how to use them 42

Overview: which graphic do I use for which situation? 51

Data and the scale of things: the use and abuse of graphic communication 53

Summary 54

Key terms 54

Review questions 54

Applied activities 55

References 55

Acknowledgements 56

Chapter 3

Doing and using research 57

Research skills and the knowledge-based society 58

The research process 58

Researching sources: primary, secondary and tertiary sources 59

Organising information 61

Using catalogues 63

Electronic databases 65

The internet 66

Note taking and tactile thinking 68

Using notetaking and reference management software 69

Referring to secondary and tertiary sources 69

Referencing systems and styles 69

May we quote you? Citing, quoting, paraphrasing and plagiarising 74

Legitimate quotation: fair dealing 75

Illegitimate quotation: plagiarising 76

Illegitimate quotation again: ‘biblio-dumping’ 76

Sources: success and failure 77

Getting the facts: primary sources of data 77

Primary data 77

Types of questions 78

Collating data 80

Testing your survey: don’t open the show without a rehearsal 80

Introducing the survey 80

Ensure that your sampling is accurate 81

Summary 83

Key terms 83

Review questions 83

Applied activities 84

References 84

Acknowledgements 84

Chapter 4

Writing letters and emails 85

Letters and emails: when, why and how 86

The eight Cs of written communication 86

Writing emails 86

Writing email: what structure? 87

Layout and appearance 87

Formatting emails for clarity and readability 89

Attachments and links 89

Identity details 89

Email management 90

Email etiquette 90

Email: problems and opportunities 91

Letters 92

Approaches to writing business letters 92

The elements of a letter 93

Letter formats 98

Letters and emails: the message 99

Routine messages 99

The nonroutine: giving the news 99

Good news correspondence 99

Good news: using the direct approach 99

Bringing good news: what not to do 100

Communicating bad news 102

Letting them down gently: the indirect approach 103

If you want their business, don’t give them the business 103

Being the bearer of bad news: how to do it well 104

Buffers and sandwiches 104

The meat of the sandwich: telling the bad news 106

Buffers: creating silver linings 108

Writing technique and the bigger picture: silver linings and top brass 109

Bad news: an overview 109

Persuasive correspondence 114

Structuring persuasive documents: the AIDA sequence 115

Message plus 116

Collection, request and order letters 117

Collection letters 117

Request letters 118

Placing orders 120

Summary 121

Key terms 121

Review questions 121

Applied activities 121

References 122

Chapter 5

Reports and proposals 123

So you’ve got to write a report … 124

The big leap: writing essays and writing reports 126

What are reports for? 127

Information and persuasion: getting the mix right 128

Who are reports for? Know your audience 129

What is involved in preparing a report? A production model 130

Commissioning the report 130

Individual or team? 131

Plan scope, outline, tasks, scheduling 131

Primary, secondary and tertiary sources of data 131

Redefine scope, outline, tasks, scheduling 132

Design graphics 132

Draft, set aside, redraft 132

Edit, produce, deliver 132

Evaluate 133

Analytical reports 133

Good news and bad news: structure and the politics of persuasion 133

Title 134

Contents page 134

List of illustrations 134

Summary/synopsis/abstract 135

Introduction 135

Discussion 135

Avoiding bias and other problems 136

Conclusions 136

Recommendations 137

References, bibliography, endnotes 137

Appendices or attachments 137

Glossary, list of abbreviations and index 137

Publishing and distributing your report 139

Formatting for print and digital reports 139

Letter/memorandum/email of transmittal 140

A sample analytical report 140

Proposals 156

How to do it: writing a proposal 158

Writing tenders 158

Summary 161

Key terms 161

Review questions 161

Applied activities 161

References 162

Acknowledgements 162

Chapter 6

Online writing 163

The offline world goes online 164

Online writing: mosaic and 3D 164

Scanning 166

Writing for the web 167

Websites 167

You as a web writer 167

Who are the readers? 168

Structure your text for readers who scan 169

Meta-tagging 170

Writing for blogs 171

Writing for social media 172

Using search engine optimisation 172

Copyright and fair use in online writing 172

Summary 174

Key terms 174

Review questions 174

Applied activities 174

References 175

Chapter 7

Academic writing: the essay 177

Essay writing 178

What makes a good or bad essay? 178

Essays: form and content 178

Essay method 181

Fact versus opinion: just what is it you have to say? 182

Critical analysis 182

Bias and balance 1 183

Synthesis and originality 183

Bias and balance 2: the other side 184

Sources and proofs 184

Essay structure 185

Thesis statements, summaries and drafting 186

Topic sentences 186

Keeping on track 187

Style and technique 187

Time and technique 188

Say what you mean, and mean what you say 188

You, the author 189

Academic writing versus workplace writing: match your style to your audience 190

Layout factors 191

Putting it together 191

Essay writing: dos and don’ts 192

Summary 193

Key terms 193

Review questions 193

Applied activities 194

References 194

Acknowledgements 194

Chapter 8

Nonverbal communication 195

What is nonverbal communication? 196

Body structure and deep behaviour: the medium is the message? 197

Head movements 198

Facial expressions 198

Eyes 199

Voice: it ain’t what you say, but the way that you say it 200

Smell 201

Gesture 202

Posture 203

Body movement 203

Touching 203

Clothing and adornment 204

Personal space/territoriality 206

Environment 207

Time and cultural context 207

Applying the model 208

Summary 211

Key terms 211

Review questions 211

Applied activities 211

References 212

Acknowledgements 215

Chapter 9

Interpersonal skills 1: emotional intelligence, self-talk, assertiveness and the cooperative principle 217

Interpersonal and intrapersonal skills: enlightenment, psychobabble or somewhere in between? 218

Emotional intelligence (and other intelligences) 218

Intelligence or competence? 218

Incorporating emotional intelligence 219

Emotional intelligence and artificial intelligence 220

Intrapersonal communication: self-talk 222

An intrapersonal–interpersonal connection? 225

Assertiveness 226

Assertiveness plus 227

Passive-aggressive: a fifth style of behaviour? 227

Assessing your assertiveness: behaviour patterns 228

Assertiveness: some verbal skills 229

1. Say no 229

2. Dismiss and redirect 230

3. Questioning to prompt awareness 230

4. Fogging 230

5. Forcing a choice 230

6. Broken record 231

7. Ask for specifics 231

8. Workable compromise 232

9. Threats 232

Verbal skills applied: a scenario 232

Assertiveness: from theory to practice 233

Limitations of assertiveness 233

Grice: the cooperative principle 234

Summary 235

Key terms 235

Review questions 235

Applied activities 235

References 236

Chapter 10

Interpersonal skills 2: listening, questioning, feedback, the Johari window and impression management 239

Who’s listening? 240

Listening: a vital workplace skill 242

Listening, power and gender 242

Listening and nonverbal communication 242

Listening: developing our skills 245

The right to remain silent 245

Barriers to effective listening 246

Actually being interested in the other person: key to effective listening 247

Active and reflective listening 248

Effective questioning 249

Feedback 252

Feedback: what does it mean, and how might it work? 252

Why feedback? 253

Performance and potential 253

The feedback sequence: a verbal tool 253

Using the feedback sequence assertively (and not so assertively) 255

Receiving feedback 258

The Johari window 259

Feedback and disclosure 260

Different windows: bulls, confessors and others 260

Windows: individual, group, organisational 261

Impression management 261

Impression management and getting a job 262

Impression management and deceptive organisations 264

Summary 266

Key terms 266

Review questions 266

Applied activities 267

References 267

Acknowledgements 268

Chapter 11

Oral communication 269

Speaking out and finding your tongue 270

Forms of oral communication 270

Different types of oral communication discourse 271

Spoken words and written words 272

Audiences: targets for your message 274

Persuading your audience: a power map approach 274

Analysing and working with problem audiences and audience members 276

Planning and structuring: what is your message? 278

Time planning 278

Content planning 278

Practice makes perfect: the value of rehearsal 280

‘You’re on now!’ — managing your stress 282

Nonverbal communication 284

‘Do I really look/sound like that?’ Feedback on performance 284

Speaking: a two-way process 284

‘Good’ and ‘bad’ nonverbal communication 285

Body language meets content: you are a speaker, not a reader 288

Using your voice 289

Articulateness and articulation: the hard work of speaking 289

Using audiovisual aids 292

The delivery: getting feedback on performance 295

Summary 298

Key terms 298

Review questions 298

Applied activities 298

References 299

Chapter 12

Argument: logic, persuasion and influence 301

Arguing about argument 302

The structure of arguments 302

Logic and argument 303

Inductive and deductive logic 303

Other tools of logic 304

Toulmin’s model of argumentation 306

Fallacies and non-fallacies (ethical argument tools) 307

Is logic enough? 312

Persuasion 312

The message sender 313

The message itself 314

Sending the message 317

Foot-in-the-door versus door-in-the-face 317

Central versus peripheral processing 317

Persuasion–propaganda sequences 318

The message recipient 318

Maslow’s model 318

Other motivators 319

The message recipient 320

Obedience, rationalising and true believers 321

Responses to the message 322

Influence 322

Principles of influence 322

Tactics of influence 323

Summary 325

Key terms 325

Review questions 326

Applied activities 326

References 326

Acknowledgements 327

Chapter 13

Negotiation skills 329

What is negotiation? 330

Winning and losing: games and pies 330

‘Win–win’: not just a cliché 332

WATNA, BATNA and Plan Bs 332

Avoidance 334

Choosing approaches 334

Research or sniffing around 335

Goals 335

Positions, fallbacks and bottom lines 335

Concessions 336

Positions versus interests 338

Investing time in uncovering interests 340

Territory and negotiation 341

Our place: what’s good 342

Our place: what’s not so good 343

Their place: what’s good 343

Their place: what’s not so good 344

Another place: what’s good 344

Another place: what’s not so good 344

Time and negotiation 345

Publics and negotiation 345

Stress and negotiation 345

Packaging and negotiation 345

Choosing people 346

Choosing tools 347

Nonverbal sensitivity 347

Listening and questioning skills 347

Persuasive skills 348

Signalling skills 348

Cultural and gender sensitivity 350

Communication channels 350

Negotiation styles 350

Strategies and tactics 353

Planning 355

Role-play: be smart, not shy or cynical 356

Agreement 356

Confirming it 357

Negotiation: not a line but a circle 357

Summary 358

Key terms 358

Review questions 358

Applied activities 359

References 359

Acknowledgements 361

Chapter 14

Conflict management 363

Conflict: not always a bad thing 364

Resolving and managing conflict 365

What causes conflict? 365

Diagnosing conflict 366

Conflict-handling styles 368

The conflict spiral 369

Challenging the spiral 371

Intrapersonal and role conflict: struggles with ourselves 372

Conflict in organisations 374

Approaches to managing conflict 376

Negotiation 376

Interpersonal skills 376

Cultural and gender differences 376

Group dynamics 376

Contact and communication 377

Superordinate goals 377

Tit for tat 377

De-escalation thresholds 378

Apology 378

Forgiveness 378

Praise 378

Sacrifice 379

New resources 379

Decoupling and buffering 379

Formal authority 379

Planning 379

Scale 379

Be precise — say what you mean 380

Stalemates 380

Compromise 381

Mediation 381

Conflict creation 382

Summary 383

Key terms 383

Review questions 383

Applied activities 384

References 385

Chapter 15

Intercultural communication 387

Culture and cultures — some definitions 388

Intercultural communication: an overview 389

Acculturation: coming to terms with ‘the other’ 390

The cultural intelligence model 393

Which comes first? Culture or economics? 393

Hofstede’s model of culture 394

Limitations of Hofstede’s model 397

House’s model of cultures 398

GLOBE and communication 401

Hall’s context model 402

Context, understanding and misunderstanding 404

Diverse planet, diverse nation, diverse organisation? 405

Summary 409

Key terms 409

Review questions 409

Applied activities 410

References 410

Acknowledgements 412

Chapter 16

Organisational communication 413

Organisations: systems of communication effectiveness and communication breakdown 414

What is organisational communication? 414

Communication channels 415

Structures: organisational design 416

Communication flows 416

What value does good organisational communication have? 417

Flat versus tall organisations 418

Centralised versus decentralised organisations 419

Organic versus mechanistic organisations 421

Networking: group process and interpersonal strategies 422

Virtual organisations 422

Network roles 422

Networkers 423

The informal organisation: I heard it through the grapevine 425

Organisational culture and communication 428

Bad culture 1: silos 430

Bad culture 2: the culture of silence 432

Communication and knowledge management 432

Summary 435

Key terms 435

Review questions 436

Applied activities 436

References 436

Chapter 17

Public communication 441

Context of public relations communication 442

What do public relations practitioners actually do? 444

Who are public relations practitioners communicating with? 445

Public relations campaigns 446

Situation analysis 446

Goals and objectives 447

Research 447

Communication strategy 448

Budget, results and evaluation 449

Public communication documents 449

Media releases 449

Backgrounders 452

Position papers 452

Fact sheets 453

Profiles 453

Media kits 453

Crisis communication 454

Issue definition 454

Environmental scanning and crisis control 455

Transparency and communication 455

Communicating in a crisis 456

Communication language 456

Concise language 457

Clear language 458

Cool language 458

Concrete language 459

Concerned language 459

Feeding back: from crisis tactics to organisational strategy 460

Summary 461

Key terms 461

Review questions 462

Applied activities 462

References 462

Acknowledgements 463

Chapter 18

Team communication 465

Groups, teams and leaders 466

Group dynamics: how do groups work? 466

Group membership 467

Group versus individual performance 469

Synergy and social loafing 469

Roles people play 470

Norms 477

Groupthink — where you least expect it? 480

Stages of group development 483

Group or team? 484

Teams: strengths and weaknesses 485

Teams: the good news 485

Teams: the bad news 486

Virtual teams 488

Overcoming communication challenges 488

Sharing information 489

Coordinating work 489

Creativity and collaboration 489

Building connection, shared culture and trust 490

Communicating with others in the group/team 492

Summary 493

Key terms 493

Review questions 494

Applied activities 494

References 494

Chapter 19

Communicating in meetings 499

Meetings: the good news and the bad news 500

Meetings: how do they work? 500

Meetings: structure versus power 502

Meeting structure 503

Meetings: making them happen 506

The chairperson 506

The secretary or note-taker 507

Agendas and minutes 508

Questions that need to be asked about meetings 511

Meeting decision making and problem solving 513

Support of individual or leader 513

Voting 514

Consensus 516

Brainstorming 517

Delphi 518

Nominal group technique 519

Improved nominal group technique 520

Virtual meetings 522

Virtual meetings: the upside 523

Virtual meetings: the downside 524

Getting the most out of meetings: surviving and flourishing as a participant 525

Summary 527

Key terms 527

Review questions 527

Applied activities 528

References 528

Acknowledgements 530

Chapter 20

Employment communication 531

Employment: the bigger picture 532

Job takers and job makers 532

Career paths 532

Where are the jobs? 532

What do employers really want? 533

How to prepare for the job market 534

Become more flexible 534

Become more organised 535

Think big and think small 535

Become a job researcher 535

Become a networker 536

Build a personal brand 537

Build a skills–knowledge–experience mix 537

Putting it all together 539

Job application evaluation 539

The document mix 540

References 547

Transcripts and qualifications 548

Job seeking: the funny side 549

Readers: human and machine 550

Applicant tracking system software 550

How to beat the robot readers of your résumé 551

Cheating on your résumé or not? 552

Six seconds — is this the average time a recruiter spends looking at your résumé? 554

The interview process 554

Preparing for the interview 554

The nature of interviews 554

Questioning techniques 555

The other side of the table 558

Testing, testing assessment of applicants 558

Summary 560

Key terms 560

Review questions 560

Applied activities 561

References 561

Acknowledgements 563

Index 565