Psychology for VCE Units 3 and 4, 8e learnON and Print

About This Resource vii

Acknowledgements xiv

Exam terminology 1

PSYCHOLOGY — Key science skills and research methods

1 Key science skills and research methods in psychology 3

1.1 Overview 4

1.2 Aims, hypotheses and variables 7

1.2.1 Aims 7

1.2.2 Hypotheses 8

1.2.3 Variables 12

1.3 Scientific investigation methodologies 22

1.3.1 Types of research methods 22

1.3.2 Population, sample and sampling 23

1.3.3 Sampling techniques 28

1.4 Controlled experiments 36

1.4.1 Experimental and control groups 36

1.4.2 Random allocation 37

1.4.3 Experimental designs 40

1.4.4 Experimental settings 44

1.4.5 Advantages and limitations of experiments 45

1.5 Correlational studies 49

1.5.1 Correlation and causation 52

1.5.2 Using correlations to identify important factors and to make predictions 53

1.5.3 Advantages and limitations of correlational studies 53

1.6 Self-reports 57

1.6.1 Interviews 58

1.6.2 Questionnaires 59

1.6.3 Focus groups 61

1.6.4 Advantages and limitations of self-reports 62

1.7 Observational studies 66

1.7.1 Natural and contrived settings 68

1.7.2 Participant and non-participant observation69

1.7.3 Advantages and limitations of observational studies 70

1.8 Case studies 75

1.8.1 Advantages and limitations of case studies 76

1.9 Simulation studies 80

1.9.1 Advantages and limitations of simulation studies 81

1.10 Sources of error and their control or minimisation 84

1.10.1 Random and systematic errors 84

1.10.2 Extraneous and confounding variables 87

1.11 Types of extraneous variables and their control 93

1.11.1 Participant variables 93

1.11.2 Situational variables 95

1.11.3 Demand characteristics 101

1.11.4 Experimenter effects 104

1.11.5 Placebo effect108

1.12 Ethical considerations in psychological research and reporting 112

1.12.1 Defining ethics and ethical standards 112

1.12.2 Ethical concepts and guidelines 113

1.13 Types of data 120

1.13.1 Primary and secondary data 120

1.13.2 Quantitative and qualitative data 121

1.13.3 Objective and subjective data 123

1.14 Data organisation and presentation 126

1.14.1 Tables 127

1.14.2 Graphs 128

1.15 Evaluation of data and research 133

1.15.1 Percentages 133

1.15.2 Measures of central tendency 135

1.15.3 Standard deviation as a measure of variability 138

1.15.4 Outliers 141

1.15.5 Reliability and validity 143

1.15.6 Conclusions and generalisations 148

1.16 Review 153

Unit 3 How Does Experience Affect Behaviour and Mental Processes? 162

2 Nervous system functioning 165

2.1 Overview 166

2.2 Roles of different sub-divisions of the central and peripheral nervous systems 170

2.2.1 Central nervous system 170

2.2.2 Peripheral nervous system 173

2.3 Conscious and unconscious responses to sensory stimuli 184

2.4 Role of neurotransmitters 189

2.4.1 Glutamate 191

2.4.2 Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) 192

2.5 Role of neuromodulators 195

2.5.1 Dopamine 195

2.5.2 Serotonin 197

2.6 Neural mechanisms of memory formation and learning 201

2.6.1 Synaptic plasticity and changes to connections between neurons 201

2.6.2 Sprouting, rerouting and pruning 203

2.6.3 Long-term potentiation and long-term depression 204

2.7 Review209

3 Stress as an example of a psychobiological process 217

3.1 Overview 218

3.2 Internal and external stressors 220

3.3 Acute and chronic stress 221

3.4 Fight-or-flight-or-freeze response in acute stress 223

3.4.1 Fight or flight reactions 224

3.4.2 Freeze reaction 226

3.5 Role of cortisol in chronic stress 230

3.6 The gut–brain axis (GBA) 234

3.6.1 Gut–brain axis 234

3.6.2 Gut microbiota 234

3.6.3 Links with stress 235

3.7 Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) as a biological model of stress 238

3.7.1 Stages of the GAS 239

3.7.2 Strengths and limitations of the GAS 240

3.8 Stress as a psychological process 245

3.8.1 Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping 245

3.8.2 Strengths and limitations of the Lazarus and Folkman model 248

3.9 Strategies for coping with stress 252

3.9.1 Context-specific effectiveness 253

3.9.2 Coping flexibility 253

3.9.3 Approach and avoidance coping strategies 255

3.9.4 Comparing effectiveness of approach and avoidance strategies 256

3.10 Review 261

4 Approaches to understand learning 269

4.1 Overview 270

4.2 Behaviourist approaches to learning  273

4.3 Classical conditioning as a three-phase process 274

4.3.1 The three-phase model of classical conditioning 276

4.3.2 Factors that influence classical conditioning 279

4.4 Operant conditioning as a three-phase process 284

4.4.1 The three-phase model of operant conditioning 285

4.4.2 Reinforcement 289

4.4.3 Punishment 292

4.4.4 Factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment 294

4.5 Comparing classical and operant conditioning 299

4.5.1 The role of the learner 299

4.5.2 Timing of the stimulus and response 299

4.5.3 The nature of the response 300

4.6 Social-cognitive approaches to learning 304

4.7 Observational learning 305

4.8 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing 310

4.9 Review 313

5 The psychobiological process of memory 325

5.1 Overview 326

5.2 Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model of memory 328

5.2.1 Sensory memory 330

5.2.2 Short-term memory (STM) 335

5.2.3 Long-term memory (LTM) 339

5.3 Brain areas involved in long-term implicit and explicit memories 346

5.3.1 Hippocampus 346

5.3.2 Amygdala 348

5.3.3 Neocortex 351

5.3.4 Basal ganglia 353

5.3.5 Cerebellum 355

5.4 Role of episodic and semantic memory in retrieving autobiographical events and in constructing possible imagined futures 360

5.4.1 Alzheimer’s disease 360

5.4.2 Aphantasia 363

5.5 Comparing use of mnemonics by written and oral cultures 367

5.5.1 Acronyms 368

5.5.2 Acrostics 369

5.5.3 Method of loci 369

5.5.4 Aboriginal peoples’ use of songlines 370

5.6 Review 375

Unit 4 How Is Mental Wellbeing Supported and Maintained? 382

6 The demand for sleep 385

6.1 Overview 386

6.2 Sleep as a psychological construct 390

6.3 Measurement of physiological responses associated with sleep 392

6.3.1 Electroencephalography (EEG) 393

6.3.2 Electromyography (EMG) 394

6.3.3 Electro-oculargraphy (EOG) 395

6.3.4 Sleep diaries 395

6.3.5 Video monitoring 397

6.4 Regulation of sleep–wake patterns by internal biological mechanisms 400

6.4.1 Circadian rhythms 401

6.4.2 Ultradian rhythms 402

6.4.3 Suprachiasmatic nucleus 403

6.4.4 Melatonin 404

6.5 NREM and REM sleep 407

6.5.1 NREM sleep 408

6.5.2 REM sleep 410

6.6 Differences in, and explanations for, the demands for sleep across the life span 415

6.6.1 Newborns and infants 416

6.6.2 Children 417

6.6.3 Adolescents 417

6.6.4 Adults 417

6.7 Review 422

7 Importance of sleep in mental wellbeing 429

7.1 Overview 430

7.2 Effects of partial sleep deprivation 432

7.2.1 Affective functioning 434

7.2.2 Behavioural functioning 436

7.2.3 Cognitive functioning 438

7.3 Comparing effects of one night of full sleep deprivation vs blood-alcohol concentrations of 0.05 and 0.10 442

7.3.1 Cognitive effects 442

7.3.2 Affective effects 443

7.4 Circadian rhythm sleep disorders 446

7.4.1 Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS) 447

7.4.2 Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder (ASPD) 447

7.4.3 Shift work disorder 451

7.4.4 Treatment of circadian rhythm sleep disorders through bright light therapy 455

7.5 Improving sleep hygiene and adaption to zeitgebers to improve sleep–wake patterns and mental wellbeing 460

7.5.1 Improving sleep hygiene 460

7.5.2 Adaptation to zeitgebers 461

7.6 Review 468

8 Defining mental wellbeing 475

8.1 Overview 476

8.2 Ways of considering mental wellbeing 478

8.2.1 Levels of functioning 478

8.2.2 Resilience 480

8.2.3 The Social and Emotional Wellbeing (SEWB) view of mental wellbeing for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 482

8.3 Mental wellbeing as a continuum 486

8.4 Mental wellbeing as a product of internal and external factors 489

8.5 Variations for individuals experiencing stress, anxiety and phobia 492

8.6 Review 497

9 Biopsychosocial approach to explain specific phobia 501

9.1 Overview 502

9.2 Biological factors 507

9.2.1 GABA dysfunction 507

9.2.2 Long-term potentiation 509

9.3 Psychological factors 511

9.3.1 Behavioural models 511

9.3.2 Cognitive biases 515

9.4 Social factors6 519

9.4.1 Specific environmental triggers 519

9.4.2 Stigma around seeking treatment 520

9.5 Evidence-based interventions in the treatment of specific phobia 522

9.5.1 Biological interventions 523

9.5.2 Psychological interventions 528

9.5.3 Social interventions 535

9.6 Review 540

10 Maintenance of mental wellbeing 547

10.1 Overview 548

10.2 Biological protective factors 550

10.2.1 Adequate nutritional intake and hydration 550

10.2.2 Adequate sleep 553

10.3 Psychological protective factors 555

10.3.1 Cognitive behavioural strategies 555

10.3.2 Mindfulness meditation 559

10.4 Social protective factors 561

10.4.1 Support from family, friends and community 561

10.5 Cultural determinants for wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 566

10.5.1 Cultural determinants 566

10.5.2 Cultural continuity 566

10.5.3 Self-determination 568

10.6 Review 570

Glossary 575

References onlineonly

Index 587